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The
immediate cause of the conflict was the question of the Hohenzollern
candidature for the Spanish throne. In 1868, Queen Isabella had been
deposed, and the throne was finally offered to Prince Leopold of
Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, a relative of the King of Prussia.
The French were naturally unwilling to see a Hohenzollern on their western
frontier and protested. King William, himself lukewarm about the idea,
acquiesced but refused to undertake that the candidature could never be
renewed. France tactlessly insisted, and when the King refused to discuss
the matter further or to see the French Ambassador, Bismarck managed to make
it appear that France had been insulted. The infamous Ems Telegram threw the
French Assembly and people into a rage, and war was declared.
General Leboeuf assured the government that the army was ready down to
“the last gaiter button”. This unfortunately was untrue.
Most military pundits assumed that the war would begin with a rapid French
thrust across the Rhine to disrupt German mobilisation plans. Events were to
prove, however, that French planning was haphazard, contrasting sharply with
the efficient German preparations, and after a brief foray against
Saarbruken in early August 1870, the French fell tamely back across the
frontier. The Germans then took the initiative and moved into France in
three large armies. Moltke, commanding the German forces, planned an
enveloping attack by the third Army, whilst the 1st and 2nd Armies attacked
frontally. This plan was frustrated by Steinmetz, commander of the 1st Army,
who attacked prematurely at Spicheren (August 6th). Although successful, his
attack persuaded the French to withdraw, thus escaping the turning movement.
The same day, the 3rd Army was also unintentionally engaged at Froeschwiller.
Again the French were driven back, though both sides suffered heavy
casualties. Already the difference in attitude between the French and German
commanders was becoming clear: the French generals seemed reluctant to
take the initiative, whilst their opponents attacked at every opportunity.
French morale suffered considerably after these initial setbacks, and as
they trudged back towards Metz it became worse. As order and counter-order
flew back and forth between the Emperor, the Ministry of War in Paris,
MacMahon and Bazaine, the army became split: part under Bazaine retired on
Metz, the remainder under MacMahon moved towards Chalons-sur-Marne. Disaster
struck almost immediately. Bazaine failed to secure his line of retreat, and
soon found himself cut off. An attempt to break through at Mars la Tour
failed due to a complete lack of drive on the part of the French commander,
despite inflicting nearly 25% casualties on the enemy. The French then
pulled back to an excellent defensive position to the West of Metz, where
they were engaged again on August 18th. The battle of Gravelotte-St Privat
was decisive. Although suffering heavy casualties in a hard fought contest,
the Germans succeeded in turning the French right flank, and forced them to
seek refuge in the fortress of Metz itself. Despite their efforts, the
trapped army was unable to break out, and surrendered ten weeks later. As
the investment of Metz was completed, Moltke reorganised his forces to
operate against MacMahon, who, after lingering listlessly around Chalons,
had been ordered to aid Bazaine. MacMahon’s demoralised army moved on
Metz, only to be blocked at Beaumont. He then ordered a withdrawal on Sedan,
where he was cornered and forced to surrender.
It was fully expected that France would now sue for peace, but the newly
formed republic affirmed its intention of continuing the war, and began the
mammoth task of building new armies. The Germans, meanwhile, advanced on
Paris, which they surrounded in mid-September. For the next four months the
French capital was closely besieged, whilst a series of provincial armies
tried unsuccessfully to relieve it. The poorly trained provincial armies,
despite heroic efforts, were defeated. A guerrilla war waged by the francs-tireurs
provoked savage reprisals. Finally, in January 1871, peace was signed: with
France losing Alsace, Lorraine and five billion francs; and the German
Empire forged from Prussia and her allies.
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